Audience: Remember,
you’re writing for somebody else -- they can’’t get inside of your head
or ask
you “Uh, what do you mean right here?” You have to make it
clear to your
reader, who is always hungry for more detail and who has high
expectations.
Argument:
A particular point or belief you are trying to prove. This
works on two
levels: 1) you have the argument for an entire essay (thesis): Handguns
should
be outlawed; 2) you have an argument for an individual paragraph (topic
sentence): One reason they should be outlawed is because they are too
easily
concealed. For more on arguments, click through all the links (arrow at
bottom
of page) on Rhetorical Strategies (https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/academic_writing/establishing_arguments/rhetorical_strategies.html) and Logic
in Argumentative Writing https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/academic_writing/logic_in_argumentative_writing/logic_in_writing.html) and The Logic Behind Arguments.
Body Paragraphs:
The individual paragraphs that prove your thesis by explaining your
arguments
or providing the information to readers. Each paragraph is focused on a
single
idea (usually noted with a focus word/phrase to explain what you will
be saying
about that idea) stated in a topic sentence. In turn, each
paragraph
supports, explains, or proves your thesis. You need to keep two things
in mind
when writing a body paragraph: 1) the overall focus of the essay
(thesis); and
2) how this particular paragraph supports/proves/ explains it (focus
word/s).
When typed, a paragraph should roughly cover 1/3 to 1/2 of a
page. Any
more, and the reader probably needs a break; any less, and the reader
isn't
satisfied. This, of course, overlooks the occasional one
sentence zinger
paragraph.
One way to remember
what a body paragraph should include is TEEC. Topic sentence,
Evidence,
Explanation, Conclusion. Sample paragraph format:
The
info on body
paragraph is adapted from Rules
of Thumb
Citation: Used
to let
reader know you have used an outside source. In this class,
we’ll be using
the MLA Citation method https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/mla_style/mla_style_introduction.html.
Commas: Not
when you pause and not when the sentence is going on for too
long. Actually, there are four times when you need a comma:
Conclusion:
The last paragraph
of your essay. You can ask yourself the question “What’s it
all mean?”or
bring up something discussed in your introduction. Avoid repeating the
old,
boring "repeat your thesis."
Context:
When using a source or quote, you should give the reader some
information to 1)
set up your argument, Example: As the statistics that follow show, the
crime
rate has decreased over the last ten years . . . or 2) help identify
and give
authority to the source or place the source or example in the given
work. (Example: David Bordelon, a highly esteemed
literary critic,
argues that . . . or At the beginning of the
story, right before
Gregor is transformed into a beetle, he . . .
Counterargument:
A specific argument against your own position. NOTE: You must
always rebut
a counterargument. For example, if your essay is in favor of
gun control,
a counterargument could be “Some argue that if we have gun control,
only
criminals will have guns.” By bringing this up, you show that your
position is
reasoned: you have at least considered the other side, and given
thought to the
whole issue. REMEMBER: a counterargument consists of two parts – the
counterargument itself and the rebuttal (see below for rebuttal).
Dependent Clause:
A phrase which cannot stand by itself . Ex. “The dog, which had sharp
teeth,
was bit by the postman.” The italicized phrase “which had
sharp teeth,”
needs to be set off from the independent clause with
commas. See #4 in
Commas.
Detail: It’s
your job to get the reader to see, hear, smell, taste, feel, exactly
what you
are talking about, and you do this by supplying specific descriptions,
using
examples, statistics, etc., that make the reader say “Oh, now I see
what you’re
talking about.” Remember, the reader is a hungry beast, and it is
difficult to
satisfy his or her desire to know, so feed the beast with specific
details. And after supplying these word pictures or polling
data or
statistical research, remember to add explanations.
Direct Quote:
Using the exact wording from your source: no words can be taken out
(unless you
use ellipsis dots), and no words can be added (unless you put brackets
[ ]
around them). You denote where the quote begins and ends with
quotation
marks. NOTE: YOU MUST USE AN INTRODUCTORY PHRASE and CITE DIRECT QUOTES.
Discourse:
A particular kind/type of language connected to a particular field or
area of
study. For example, in the discourse of computers, when
someone asks a
person to “burn a disk,” it means to create a CD using a CD
recorder. In
the discourse of fire fighters, it means a fire extinguisher will be
needed.
Division
Statement: A phrase or sentence
which lists the separate arguments/reasons which prove the thesis of
your
essay. Think of it as a road map to the reader so they can see
what’s
coming. Each of your body paragraphs need to be accounted for
in your
division statement. This can be a part of your thesis or in a
separate
sentence.
Ellipsis:
When quoting from a
source, three dots in square brackets to tell reader you’ve taken words
out of
a direct quote. Use four dots if the removed material includes
a period.
(ex. “The authors [. . .] decided to tell the others.”)
Essay:
An essay is a
focused and organized presentation of your thinking on a particular
topic –
with an emphasis on the word focus. It is not everything you
know or feel about
a topic dumped into a collection of paragraphs, but a body of writing
with a
clear direction, a direction readily apparent to the reader, logically
proceeding from one part to the next. It usually consists of
an
introduction, thesis/division statement, body paragraphs, and a
conclusion.
The
main difference
between academic essays and essays for general readership (such as
articles in
magazines) is audience. In academic writing, you communicate
your thinking
by following some basic conventions (introduction, thesis statement,
etc.) so
that your primary reader, a person who has sought out your essay, can
quickly
grasp your understanding of, or position on, a specific topic.
When
writing for
general readers, more emphasis is placed on style; unlike the
professor, these
people don’t have to read the essay: the writer has to make them want
to read
it – and it has to be good enough to persuade readers to shell out the
bucks to
do so. The challenge in writing for college lies in combining the two:
to
follow the conventions without sounding, well,
conventional. As the sample
student essays and paragraphs included in this packet show, it is
possible to
stick to a “pattern,” yet retain an individual and interesting voice:
it just
takes a bit of skill and a lot of effort.
Evidence:
The facts,
descriptions, examples, etc. that support your argument. See
explanation.
Explanation:
By answering the
"why," "how," and "what" of your evidence,
explanations prove your argument. As you draft and revise each
paragraph,
literally ask yourself the following questions each time you offer
evidence:
"How does this prove the focus of this paragraph?" or "Why
should the reader know this?" or "What does this
prove?" Details, evidence, and sources are mute: you must give
them a
voice by telling the reader exactly how and why they prove your
point. Remember, readers are ignorant: they do not not
understand what you
are saying – ya’ gotta’ make clear. To be blunt, try adding at
least two
complete sentences of explanation. See #4 in body
paragraphs.
Format: The physical
way
your essay looks on the page. OCC uses Modern Language
Association (MLA) format
for English courses, which
is standard
for the Humanities. Luckily, this
is a no-brainer. Just match the sample essay and you’ll have
no
problems. Pay attention to spacing, placement of page number,
and works
cited page. Note: those who use Word or Works do not follow
the “Report”
template: use your brain and follow the sample essay. And to those
using
various online citation generators, they're usually wrong.
Instead use
Purdue's OWL (https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/mla_style/mla_formatting_and_style_guide/mla_sample_paper.html).
Fragment:
A sentence that
doesn’t complete a thought -- or more formally, lacks a subject and
verb. See our composition handbook for instructions on how to recognize and correct this.
Independent
Clause: A sentence, or part
of a sentence, that can stand on its own. Ex. “The dog, which
had sharp
teeth, was bit by the postman.” The independent clause is “The
dog was bit
by the postman.”
Introduction:
The first paragraph
in an essay. Use this paragraph to get your reader interested,
or
“hooked,” on your topic. Beware of the boring start. Usually,
your thesis
and division statement are in the introduction (generally the last
sentence of
introduction), but are not the introduction.
Introductory
Phrase: For the purposes of
this course, a short phrase which sets up a direct quotation; more
generally,
any short dependent clause used at the beginning of a
sentence. You should
provide a context for your quote by letting the reader know who wrote
or said
it. Ex. Dr. I. Hurt, head of ophthalmology at John Hopkins University
Hospital,
argues that “eye care is the most basic part of our program” (qtd. in
Smith 12).
MLA documentation: The
method used by
the Modern Language Association (MLA) in this class and other
Humanities
courses to document research. It consists of two parts
parenthetical
citations and works cited entries. See Purdue's
OWL (https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/747/01/) and
our handbook for
more detail.
Organization: The
structure
of your essay. This includes your thesis, division statement,
and topic
sentences. If they all connect, your essay is well organized -- if the
order of
your divisions does not match the order of your paragraphs, or the
essay lacks
a clear thesis or divisions and topic sentences, then they
have to be
revised.
Outline:
A breakdown of the
different parts of your essay. This doesn’t have to be a
formal, Roman
numeral affair; it could be as simple as a list of phrases/ideas that
only you
understand. Interestingly, they are often effective even after
you’ve written
your rough draft (I use both – and find that the one’s I use after I’ve
written
a rough draft are the ones I usually stick with).
Paraphrase:
Taking each word of
your source, and finding a synonym for it. NOTE: THIS MUST
INCLUDE A
CITATION.
Parenthetical
Documentation (Or In-text
Citation): In MLA documentation, this is how the reader knows the
author’s name
(at the very least the last name) and often the page number(s) where
the
information is located. This usually consists of three steps:
1) the
author’s name, usually set up in an introductory phrase; 2)
the actual
information from the source – direct quote, summary, or paraphrase; and
3) the
page number in parenthesis. See the
In-text citation page on Purdue OWL (https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/747/02/) for
more
information.
Plagiarism: Taking the
words or
ideas from a source without 1) citing it and/or 2) using quotation
marks to separate
your words from the source’s. Review the college's plagiarism policy and instructions for avoiding plagiarism.
Pre-writing:
Ever had the
sensation "I know what I want to say but I just can't get put it into
words!" There is a highly technical phrase for this: "What all
writers feel." The difference between beginning writers and more
experienced writers is that beginning writers get discouraged too
easily.
Experienced writers know that the trick is just to write out whatever is
in
their head, and then work on revising it into something others can
understand. They know that what comes out first is rough and
unformed, but
that’s okay because they’ll be changing it anyway. So instead
of staring
at a blank piece of paper waiting for that perfect first sentence to
drop from
the heavens, jot down notes, brainstorm, make lists, or just write for
10
minutes without stopping to get started. This technique helps
you get
started -- and comes in handy for revision as well.
Proofreading: A
different way
of reading an essay where you concentrate on clarifying wording and
punctuation. After you’re finished revising your essay, go
through the
essay slowly, ideally, with someone else reading along on another copy,
and question
EVERYTHING. Do I need that comma? Do I need to add a
comma
here? Did I introduce that source correctly? Couldn’t
I use a more
specific word here?
Get
used to reading
your work as a workbook exercise, not as something you’ve written -- in
other
words, actively look for and make changes. Two hints: slowly
read essay
out loud, listening for confusing or tangled wording, and read essay
from the
last sentence to the first. You can also separate each
sentence on a new
line to make it resemble a workbook (“Uh . . . isn’t that three hints”
“Yes,
I’m glad you can count”). See Proofreading Suggestions page
for
additional information.
Reasons: These are the
arguments used to prove the validity of your thesis. Try to
develop as
many different reasons as you can (ask yourself “why is my main focus
valid?”),
and then choose the ones which you feel will best prove your
point. You
should revise and refine these as you write your essay. For more on
reasoning,
see Developing Reasons and The Logic Behind Arguments. Another
great resource is Daniel Kahnman's Thinking Fast and Slow: this summary is a great overview and way
into the world of
thinking (http://www.techietonics.com/thinking-turf/book-review-thinking-fast-and-slow-by-daniel-kahneman.html).
Rebuttal:
The second part of
the counterargument. Try starting it with a “But," "Yet" or
“However," to show readers that the argument offered by the opposing
side
is wrong.
Research: Articles
from
newspapers, journals, or information from books or other authoritative
sources
that are used to support your argument. Often you use expert
opinion to
show how your points are valid, or you may argue with someone’s beliefs
(see
counterargument). The key in most essays is to avoid using
long quotes, or
letting the research overwhelm your essay: remember, you, as the writer
of the
paper, need to determine what helps your overall argument, and what
just sounds
good. See source below and Finding Sources for
more information.
Revision: To
look
at your writing not as the person that wrote it, but as a reader who
feels
differently than you on any given topic. A good place to start revising
is by
deleting as much as you can. While this strikes terror in
beginning
writers' hearts ("It took me forever to come up with this in the first
place!"), it is essential for good writing. Almost all drafts have
paragraphs and sentences that aren't detailed or don't support the
thesis. It's
a very good sign if you cut out large sections of your prose: it shows
that you
now know what you want to say. In short, revision entails
looking at the
entire work and determining what helps and what doesn't -- and being
brutally
honest about what doesn't. As a student once told me, "All I'm
keeping is the name at the top of the page.”
After
removing the
"dead wood," you can work on communicating your thoughts more
effectively. This often entails adding descriptions, facts,
comparisons, or
stories (evidence) to make your point, and then explaining, in two or
three
different ways, exactly how these descriptions, facts, etc. prove that
point. Remember, the evidence makes perfect sense to you --
but not to the
reader who looks at things differently than you do. In any case, make
changes
until you're sure the reader says "Oh, NOW I see what you
mean." For more on this, see the Revision page.
Run-on: Two
independent
clauses in one sentence. Needs to be separated with a period,
semi-colon,
comma and conjunction, or rewritten. See our composition
handbook for suggestions on recognizing and then correcting this error.
Source: An
individual
piece of research. This could be anything from an article to
an interview
with a friend. The key here is using sources considered credible and authoritative for academic essays. See Finding Sources for
specifics.
Summary: Taking
the
general idea or statement from a source using only your own
words. NOTE:
THIS MUST BE CITED.
Thesis
Statement: The controlling
idea of an essay stated in one sentence, usually the last sentence in
the
introduction. See the different planning pages on the course
site and our
composition handbook for several examples of thesis statements and
topic
sentences.
Topic
Sentence: The controlling idea
of a paragraph. Usually phrased as a statement or claim that
needs to be
proved, it is related to and helps prove the thesis. Often
uses a synonym
of one of the divisions from the division statement to cue readers that
a
particular division is being discussed.
Transitions: Words
or
phrases used within and between paragraphs or sentences that show
readers you
are changing direction or topic. For paragraphs, a good
technique is to
mention the topic from the previous paragraph in the topic sentence of
the new
paragraph. Ex. topic sentence with transition. “Not only are
handguns easy
to hide, they are readily available.” The previous paragraph
was about how
handguns are easy to hide, and the new paragraph will be about their
availability. See Transitions for
additional information and
suggestions.
Working
Bibliography: An ongoing list
of possible sources gleaned from indexes and computer
databases. Usually,
out of four items, you’ll find one good source.
Works Cited
Entry: A notation,
following MLA format, of a particular source. These are
located on the
works cited page. This is detail work: you must follow the
guidelines
exactly, paying particular attention to the placement and order of
dates,
commas and periods. Luckily, this is a one-time deal: do it
right and do
it once. See and our composition handbook for sample entries and
guidelines.
See Purdue's OWL and
our handbook for more detail.
Works Cited
Page: An alphabetized
arrangement of all the sources actually used in a particular essay
located on a
separate page at the end of that essay. Follow sample essay
and/or
textbook for formatting instructions. See Purdue's
OWL and
our handbook for more
detail.
The
Writing Process: Breaking
down an
essay into small, manageable tasks, such as invention, organizing,
drafting,
etc. instead of trying to write the whole shebang at one sitting. In
other
words, writing differently from the way you've probably been writing.
See The Writing Process page
for additional
information.