Glossary
Bold words in definitions means a cross-reference (check in glossary for the definition of that word).
Annotate: To mark up, comment on, or underline
writing. In the margins of your book you need to ask questions of the
writer, summarize a paragraph with a key word, note similarities in
word choice, and in general, take notes. This is your way of
communicating with a writer (even dead ones), and making sure you
understand what is written. It also helps to prepare you for in-class
discussions. Do this with a pen or pencil – hi-lighters prevent you
from actually talking back to the text (ever try writing with one of
those yellow markers?). Another hint, with longer works, is to use an
index card as a bookmark and note page numbers of important quotes or
descriptions.
Audience: Remember, you’re writing for somebody
else – whoever is reading your work can't get inside of your head or
ask you "Uh, what do you mean right here?" You have to make your
thinking clear to your reader, who is ignorant of what you're trying to
say, is always hungry for more detail, and who (in my case) has high
expectations.
Argument: A particular point or belief you are
trying to prove. This works on two levels: 1) you have the argument for
an entire essay (thesis): Sammy is an everyday hero; 2) you have an argument for an individual paragraph (topic sentence): One aspect that makes him an everyday hero is his character flaws.
Body Paragraphs: The individual paragraphs that make up the argument or provide the information contained in your essay.
Each paragraph is focused on a single idea (and usually a focus word/s
to explain what you will be saying about that idea), stated in a topic sentence. In turn, each paragraph supports, explains, or proves your thesis.
When typed, a paragraph should roughly cover 1/3 to 1/2 of a page. Any
more, and the reader probably needs a break; any less, and the reader
isn't satisfied. This, of course, overlooks the occasional one sentence
zinger paragraph.
Sample paragraph format:
- A main point stated in one sentence (make it an
argument/statement – Sammy is an everyday hero because his character is
flawed – a claim that needs to be backed up. I'll call this a topic sentence.
- An definition/explanation of any general
words in your main point. In this case, what do you mean by a
"realistic hero"? How is that different from a regular hero? What do
you mean by a "character . . . flaw"? Ex. Writers often use character
flaws – vanity, egoism, etc. – to make a particular character more
realistic, more human. After all, few “real” people are without flaws
and instead of making readers dislike the character, they can, if used
artfully, generate a feeling of sympathy.
- Examples or details that support your point
(use descriptions of characters or setting, quotes from the literary
work, commentary by literary critics, etc.). Ex. Sammy, for instance,
refers to the customers in derogatory terms: "witch" (1540), "sheep"
(1542) and "scared pigs in a chute" (1545).
- The reader cannot read your mind: after each quote, you have
to tell him or her exactly what you want it to prove/show. Ask the
following question in your head "how does this example prove my point?"
and "why is this quote important in this paragraph?" and then it
answer in your essay. This is where you prove your argument. As a
sentence starter, try "This" or a restatement of your example (ex. This
criticism points to Sammy’s egocentrism, a common flaw with younger
adults.) and then use an explanatory word (illustrates, shows,
demonstrates, proves, suggests, defines, supports, indicates, or
reveals) in a phrase to begin your commentary. Ex. His egocentrism
makes him a more realistic character: far from a sterling example of
humanity, he shares the faults common in us all.
- A sentence to sum up.
Adapted from Rules of Thumb
Citation: Used to let reader know you have used an outside source. In this class, we’ll be using the MLA Citation method.
Commas: Not when you pause, and not when the
sentence is going on too long. Actually, there are four times when you
need a comma: 1) with an introductory phrase; 2) with a list; 3) before
a conjunction and between two independent clauses; and 4) with a interruption or insertion (dependent clauses). See your grammar text for more information.
Conclusion: The last paragraph of your essay.
You can ask yourself the question "What's it all mean?" or bring up a
point broached in your introduction, or . . . . something else.
Context : This serves two
purposes: 1) it sets up your point/argument by telling the reader why
you’re bringing up a particular source or quote, and 2) it gives the
reader information to help identify the speaker or place the speaker or
example in the given work. For example, if using a quote from
"A&P," you might say Sammy knew that he was not going to be like a
typical hero and "get the girl" at the end of the story. As he walks
out into the parking lot, he looks for "my girls," but notes that
"they’re gone, of course" (17). The "of course," with its knowing air,
suggests that Sammy, even before he stepped outside, realized that his
heroic deed would go unnoticed by the girls. Context helps readers by
making the reader think "Oh yeah, now I remember that part" and by
letting readers better understand (and thus agree with) your argument
by framing it in a manner so they can understand it. By setting up
your example so clearly, your argument flows logically from your
example and explanation leaving the reader with a satisfied "Ahhh" as
opposed to a befuddled "huh?"
Cues: No, not sticks used in playing pool, but the way writers direct readers through their work. For instance, a thesis and division statement are cues writers use to tell their readers "This is what my essay will be about." A topic sentence
is a cue that tells readers "This is what this paragraph will be
about," and a transition tells readers "Okay, I’m moving from this
topic to that topic."
Dependent Clause: A phrase which cannot stand by itself. Ex. The dog, which had sharp teeth,
was bit by the postman. The italicized phrase "which had sharp
teeth," needs to be set off from the independent clause with commas. See #4 in Commas.
Detail: It’s your job to supply specific quotes,
descriptions of characters, or settings, and other information from
the work you are discussing to "show" them what you are talking about.
You must supply the reader with the evidence that
shaped your understanding of the story so that he or she can say to
themselves "Yeah, I kinda' see that too" – as opposed to "Huh?"
Remember, the reader is a hungry beast, and it is difficult to satisfy
his or her desire to know, so be specific. After supplying details,
remember to add explanations.
Direct Quote: Using the exact wording from your
source: no words can be taken out (unless you use ellipsis dots), and
no words can be added (unless you put brackets [ ] around them). You
denote where the quote begins and ends with quotation marks. NOTE: YOU MUST CITE DIRECT QUOTES AND USE AN INTRODUCTORY PHRASE.
Division Statement: A phrase which sets out the different parts/arguments/reasons which prove the thesis of your essay (often part of your thesis). Think of it as a road map to the reader so they can see what’s coming. Each of your body paragraphs needs to be accounted for in your division statement. (See also “Thesis Statements”).
In the sample thesis statement below, the division statement is in italicized.
In "The Lottery," Jackson uses the behavior of the townspeople, the names of the characters, and the dark symbolism of the black box to foreshadow the grisly results of the lottery.
Below are topic sentences based on the division statement above. Note how they follow the order established in the division statement:
- The townspeople's behavior before the lottery sets a tone of uneasiness tinged with violence.
- In addition to the townspeople's behavior, Jackson uses the
names of the characters to cast a shadow of uncertainty and even death
over the proceedings.
- While the character's actions and names hint at the violent
end of the story, the most potent foreshadowing lies in the dark
symbolism of the lottery box itself.
Essay: An essay is a focused and organized
presentation of your thinking on a particular topic – with an emphasis
on the word focus. It is not everything you know or feel about a topic
dumped into a collection of paragraphs, but a body of writing with a
clear direction, a direction readily apparent to the reader and which
logically proceeds from one part to the next. It usually consists of an introduction, thesis/division statement, body paragraphs, and a conclusion.
The main difference between academic essays and essays for
general readership (such as articles in magazines) is audience. In
academic writing, you communicate your thinking by following some basic
conventions (introduction, thesis statement, etc.) so
that your primary reader, usually a tired, overworked professor, can
quickly grasp your understanding of, or position on, a specific topic.
When writing for general readers, more emphasis is placed on style;
unlike the professor, these readers don’t have to read the essay: the
writer has to make them want to read it – and it has to be good enough
to persuade readers to shell out the bucks to do so. The challenge in
writing for college lies in combining the two: to follow the
conventions without sounding, well, academic. As the sample essays
included in this Read show, it is possible to stick to a "pattern," yet retain an individual and interesting voice: it just takes some effort.
Evidence: In essays on literature, this usually consists of direct quotes from the primary source which prove/illustrate the argument you are making. Evidence could also be quotes or summaries from secondary sources. These are all used to show the reader how you reached your opinion (but see explanation below for the second half of this dynamic duo).
Explanation: By answering the "why," "how," and "what" of your evidence, explanations prove your argument. As you draft and revise each paragraph, literally ask yourself the following questions each time you offer evidence: "How does this prove the focus of this paragraph?" or "Why should the reader know this?" or "What does this prove?" Details, evidence,
and sources are mute: you must give them a voice by telling the reader
exactly how and why they prove your point. Remember, the reader is a
duh-head: he or she cannot understand what you are saying – ya’ gotta
make clear. To be blunt, try adding at least two complete sentences
of explanation. See #4 in body paragraphs.
Focus Word/s: For me, a word or phrase in the topic sentence of a body paragraph
that gives the paragraph a direction. Ex. The townspeople's behavior
before the lottery sets a tone of uneasiness tinged with violence. In
this topic sentence, the focus is on the "tone of uneasiness tinged
with violence." Thus, the examples and explanation will concentrate on proving this. A clear focus lends a direction and helps you shape your paragraph.
Format: The physical way your essay looks on the
page. I use the MLA format, which is standard for courses in the
Humanities. Luckily, this is a no-brainer. Just match the sample essay
and you’ll have know problems. Pay attention to spacing, placement of
page number, and works cited page. Note: those who use Word or Works do
not follow the "Report" template: use your brain and follow the sample
essay.
Fragment: A sentence that doesn’t complete a thought
– or more formally, lacks a subject and verb. See your grammar text
for more information.
Independent Clause: A sentence, or part of a
sentence, that can stand on its own. Ex. The dog, which had sharp
teeth, was bit by the postman. The independent clause is The dog was
bit by the postman.
Introduction: Use this paragraph to get your reader interested, or "hooked," on your topic – and thus the first paragraph in an essay.
Beware of the boring start. Usually, your thesis and division
statement are in the introduction (generally the last sentence of
introduction), but are not the introduction. One good
technique is to discuss in general the topic of your essay. For
example, in an essay about Sammy as a realistic hero, you can discuss
American's typical ideas of heroes, and then contrast them with Sammy.
Introductory Phrase: In my class, a short phrase which sets up a direct quotation (more generally, any short dependent clause used at the beginning of a sentence). You should provide a context
for your quote by letting the reader know who wrote or said it. Ex. As
the critic Robert Fitzgerald argues "O'Connor's work is always infused
with a sense of God's grace" (23).
MLA documentation: The method used in this class and other Humanities courses to document research. It consists of two parts: parenthetical citations and works cited entries.
Organization: The structure of your essay. Your organization includes your thesis, division statement, and topic sentences.
If they all connect, your essay is well organized; if the order of
your divisions does not match the order of your paragraphs, or if the
reader cannot follow the logic of your argument, then you need to work
on revision.
Outline: A breakdown of the different parts of your essay.
This doesn’t have to be a formal, roman numeral job; it could be as
simple as a list of phrases/ideas that set up your ideas/divisions for
each paragraph. Interestingly, they can often be used after you’ve
written your rough draft (I use both – and find that the ones I use
after I’ve written a rough draft are the ones I usually stick with).
Paraphrase: Taking each word of your source, and
finding a synonym for it. There can be no words from the original
source in your paraphrase. NOTE: THIS MUST INCLUDE A CITATION.
Parenthetical Documentation/Citation (Or In-text Citation): In MLA documentation,
this consists of two parts: the author's last name and the page number
where the information cited was taken from: it is how the reader knows
you are using a source, or research. If using a direct quote, the
author's name must be included in an introductory phrase
with only the page number in the parenthesis: Ex. As the critic Robert
Fitzgerald argues "O'Connor's work is always infused with a sense of
God's grace" (23). Note that there is no p. or page in the parenthesis,
that the author's name isn't repeated in the parenthesis, and that the
punctuation goes to the right of the parenthesis.
If summarized or paraphrased, you could use an introductory phrase, or if not, the author's name in the parenthesis. In any event, the page number/s denoting where the source is located source must be included in the parenthesis.
Plagiarism: Taking any words or ideas from another writer or person and either a) not putting the wording you copied from the source in quotation marks; and/or b) not using a citation
to let the reader know who you received the wording or other
information (summary, paraphrase, or idea/s) from. This will result
in a failing grade. If you have a question about a source, bring it and your essay in so we can review it together. Be sure to check and follow the definitions Direct Quote, Paraphrase, and Summary.
Pre-writing: Instead of staring at a blank piece of
paper waiting for that perfect first sentence to drop from the heavens
to your head, jot down notes, brainstorm, make lists, or just write for
10 minutes without stopping to get started. This technique helps you
get started – and comes in handy for revision as well.
Primary Source: The actual literary text you are
writing about. In an essay on John Updike’s “A&P,” the primary
source would be “A&P.” In an essay on Hamlet, the primary source would be Hamlet. See also Secondary Source.
Proofreading:
A different way of reading an essay where you concentrate on clarifying
wording and punctuation. After you’re finished revising your essay, you go through the essay slowly, ideally, with someone else reading along on another copy, and question EVERYTHING.
Do I need that comma? Do I need to add a comma here? Did I introduce
that source correctly? Couldn’t I use a more specific word here. Get
used to reading your work as a workbook exercise, not as something
you’ve written -- in other words, actively look for and make changes.
Two hints: slowly read essay out loud, listening for confusing or
tangled wording, and read essay from the last sentence to the first.
Also, try the MLA editor software program in the writing lab. (“Uh . . .
isn’t that three hints” “Yes, I’m glad you can count”)
Reasons: These are the arguments used to prove the validity of your thesis.
Try to develop as many different reasons as you can (ask yourself "why
is my main focus valid?"), and then choose the ones which you feel
will best prove your point. You should revise and refine these as you write your essay.
Research: Articles or other material on the
particular story or author from literary journals, letters or journals
which the author wrote, historical documents or other authoritative sources that are used to support your argument. Often you use expert opinion to show how your arguments
are valid, or you may argue with someone’s beliefs. The key in most
essays is to avoid using long quotes or letting the research overwhelm
your essay: remember, you, as the writer of the paper, need to
determine what helps your overall argument, and what just sounds good.
See source.
Revision: To look at your writing not as the person
that wrote it, but as a reader who feels differently than you on any
given topic. A good place to start revising is by deleting as much as
you can. While this strikes terror in beginning writers' hearts ("It
took me forever to come up with this in the first place!"), it is
essential for good writing. Almost all drafts have paragraphs and
sentences that aren't detailed or don't support the thesis. It's a very
good sign if you cut out large sections of your prose: it shows that
you now know what you want to say. In short, revision entails looking
at the entire work and determining what helps and what doesn't – and
being brutally honest about what doesn't. As a student once told me,
"All I'm keeping is the name at the top of the page.”
After removing the "dead wood," you can work on communicating
your thoughts more effectively. This often entails adding descriptions,
facts, comparisons, or stories to make your point (evidence), and then explaining, in two or three different ways, exactly how these descriptions, facts, etc. prove that point. Remember, the evidence
makes perfect sense to you – but not to the reader who looks at things
differently than you do. In any case, make changes until you're sure
the reader says "Oh, NOW I see what you mean."
Run-on: Two independent clauses in
one sentence. These need to be separated with a period, semi-colon,
comma and conjunction, or rewritten. See your grammar text for more
information.
Source: An individual piece of research used in your essay. This could be anything from an article by a literary scholar to an interview with an author.
Secondary Source: In literature, this refers to
letters, notes, or journals from the author, essays or books by
critics, historical documents, etc., which are used when writing a
research paper to support your ideas. The primary source would be the work (Hamlet, "My Last Duchess," "Everyday Use," etc.) itself.
Summary: Taking the general idea or statement from a source using only your own words. NOTE: THIS MUST BE CITED.
Thesis Statement: The controlling idea of an essay stated in one sentence, usually the last sentence in the introduction. See division statement for example.
Topic Sentence: The controlling idea of a paragraph.
Usually phrased as a statement or claim that needs to be proved, it is
related to and helps prove the thesis. Often uses a synonym of one of
the divisions from the division statement to cue readers that a particular division is being discussed. See division statement for example.
Transitions: Words or phrases used within and between body paragraphs
that show readers you are changing direction or topic. For paragraphs,
a good technique is to mention the topic from the previous paragraph
in the topic sentence of the new paragraph.
Ex. topic sentence with transition:
Not only do his character flaws contribute to Sammy's realism, but the lack of recognition he receives adds to it.
In this example, the previous paragraph was about character
flaws, and the new paragraph will be about his lack of recognition.
Working Bibliography: An ongoing list of possible sources gleaned from indexes and computer databases. Usually, out of four items, you’ll find one good source.
Works Cited Entry: A notation, following MLA format, of a particular source. These are located on the works cited page.
This is detail work: you must follow the guidelines exactly, paying
particular attention to the placement and order of dates, commas and
periods. Luckily, this is a one time deal: do it right and do it once. I
have several examples of commonly used sources in Read: I expect you to follow them.
Works Cited Page: An alphabetized arrangement (in MLA format) of all the sources
actually used in a particular essay located on a separate page at the
end of that essay. Follow sample essay and/or textbook for formatting
instructions, and be sure to follow the MLA Works Cited entry format.
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