The Short Story -Glossary

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Dr. Bordelon's The Short Story: On Campus

Glossary

Here you'll find a list of mainly writing terms. Literary terms and concepts are included in the lesson plans.

Annotate	To mark up, comment on, or underline writing. This is your way of communicating with a writer (even dead ones), and making sure you understand what is written. It also helps to prepare you for in-class discussions. Do this with a pen or pencil - hi-lighters prevent you from actually talking back to the text (ever try writing with one of those yellow markers?). Another hint, with longer works, is to use an index card as a bookmark and note page numbers of important quotes or descriptions.
Argument	A particular point or belief you are trying to prove. This works on two levels: 1) you have the argument for an entire essay (thesis): Sammy is a realistic hero; 2) you have an argument for an individual paragraph (topic sentence): One aspect that makes him realistic is his character flaws.
Audience	Remember, you're writing for somebody else - whoever is reading your work can't get inside of your head or ask you "Uh, what do you mean right here?" You have to make it clear to your reader, who is ignorant of what you're trying to say, is always hungry for more detail, and who (in my case) has high expectations.
Body Paragraph	The individual paragraphs that make up the argument or provide the information contained in your essay. Each paragraph is focused on a single idea (and usually a focus word/s to explain what you will be saying about that idea), stated in a topic sentence. In turn, each paragraph supports, explains, or proves your thesis. When typed, a paragraph should roughly cover 1/3 to 1/2 of a page. Any more, and the reader probably needs a break; any less, and the reader isn't satisfied. This, of course, overlooks the occasional one sentence zinger paragraph. Sample paragraph format: (see Body Paragraph Instructions for a more detailed example of a paragraph set-up) 1) A main point stated in one sentence (make it an argument/statement - Sammy is a realistic hero because his character is flawed - a claim that needs to be backed up. I'll call this a topic sentence. 2) An definition/explanation of any general words in your main point. In this case, what do you mean by a "realistic hero"? How is that different from a regular hero? What do you mean by a "character . . . flaw"? 3) Examples or details that support your point (use descriptions of characters or setting, quotes from the literary work, commentary by literary critics, etc.). Ex. Sammy refers to the customers in derogatory terms: "witch" (1540), "sheep" (1542) and "scared pigs in a chute" (1545). 4) The reader cannot read your mind: after each quote, you have to tell him or her exactly what you want it to prove/show. Ask the following question in your head "how does this example prove my point?" and "why is this quote important in this paragraph?" and then it answer in your essay. This is where you prove your argument. As a sentence starter, try "This" or a restatement of your example (ex. This criticism points to Sammy's egocentrism, a common flaw with younger adults. ) and then use an explanatory word (illustrates, shows, demonstrates, proves, suggests, defines, supports, indicates, or reveals) in a phrase to begin your commentary. Ex. His egocentrism makes him a more realistic character: far from a sterling example of humanity, he shares the faults common in us all. 5) A sentence to sum up. Adapted from Rules of Thumb
Citation	Used to let reader know you have used an outside source. In this class, we'll be using the MLA Citation method.
Comma	Not when you pause, and not when the sentence is going on too long. Actually, there are four times when you need a comma: 1) with an introductory phrase; 2) with a list; 3) before a conjunction and between two independent clauses; and 4) with a interruption or insertion (dependent clauses). See your grammar text for more information.
Conclusion	The last paragraph of your essay. You can ask yourself the question "What's it all mean?" or bring up a point broached in your introduction, or . . . . something else.
Context	This serves two purposes: 1) it sets up your point/argument by telling the reader why you're bringing up a particular source or quote, and 2) it gives the reader information to help identify the speaker or place the speaker or example in the given work. For example, if using a quote from "A&P," you might say Sammy knew that he was not going to be like a typical hero and "get the girl" at the end of the story. As he walks out into the parking lot, he looks for "my girls," but notes that "they're gone, of course" (17). The "of course," with its knowing air, suggests that Sammy, even before he stepped outside, realized that his heroic deed would go unnoticed by the girls. Context helps readers by: 1) making the reader think "Oh yeah, now I remember that part;" and 2) letting readers better understand (and thus agree with) your argument by framing it in a manner so they can understand it. By setting up your example so clearly, your argument flows logically from your example and explanation leaving the reader with a satisfied "Ahhh" as opposed to a befuddled "huh?"
Cues	No, not sticks used in playing pool, but the way writers direct readers through their work. For instance, a thesis and division statement are cues writers use to tell their readers "This is what my essay will be about." A topic sentence is a cue that tells readers "This is what this paragraph will be about," and a transition tells readers "Okay, I'm moving from this topic to that topic."
Dependent Clause	A phrase which cannot stand by itself. Ex. "The dog, which had sharp teeth, was bit by the postman." The italicized phrase "which had sharp teeth," needs to be set off from the independent clause with commas. See #4 in Commas.
Detail	It's your job to supply specific quotes, descriptions of characters, or settings, and other information from the work you are discussing to "show" them what you are talking about. You must supply the reader with the evidence that shaped your understanding of the story so that he or she can say to themselves "Yeah, I kinda' see that too" - as opposed "Huh?" Remember, the reader is a hungry beast, and it is difficult to satisfy his or her desire to know, so be specific. After supplying details, remember to add explanations.
Direct Quote	Using the exact wording from your source: no words can be taken out (unless you use ellipsis dots), and no words can be added (unless you put brackets [ ] around them). You denote where the quote begins and ends with quotation marks. NOTE: YOU MUST CITE DIRECT QUOTES AND USE AN INTRODUCTORY PHRASE.
Division Statement	A phrase, usually attached to the thesis, but sometimes separate, which sets out the different parts/arguments/reasons which prove the thesis of your essay. Think of it as a road map to the reader so they can see what's coming. Each of your body paragraphs needs to be accounted for in your division statement. (See also "Thesis Statements" in "Online Packet"). In the sample thesis statement below, the division statement is in italicized. In "The Lottery," Jackson uses the behavior of the townspeople, the names of the characters, and the dark symbolism of the black box to foreshadow the grisly results of the lottery. Below are topic sentences based on the division statement above. Note how they follow the order established in the division statement: 1. The townspeople's behavior before the lottery sets a tone of uneasiness tinged with violence. 2. In addition to the townspeople's behavior, Jackson uses the names of the characters to cast a shadow of uncertainty and even death over the proceedings. 3. While the character's actions and names hint at the violent end of the story, the most potent foreshadowing lies in the dark symbolism of the lottery box itself.
Essay	An essay is a focused and organized presentation of your thinking on a particular topic - with an emphasis on the word focus. It is not everything you know or feel about a topic dumped into a collection of paragraphs, but a body of writing with a clear direction, a direction readily apparent to the reader and which logically proceeds from one part to the next. It usually consists of an introduction, thesis/division statement, body paragraphs, and a conclusion. The main difference between academic essays and essays for general readership (such as articles in magazines) is audience. In academic writing, you communicate your thinking by following some basic conventions (introduction, thesis statement, etc.) so that your primary reader, usually a tired, overworked professor, can quickly grasp your understanding of, or position on, a specific topic. When writing for general readers, more emphasis is placed on style; unlike the professor, these readers don't have to read the essay: the writer has to make them want to read it - and it has to be good enough to persuade readers to shell out the bucks to do so. The challenge in writing for college lies in combining the two: to follow the conventions without sounding, well, academic. As the sample essay included in the Online Packet shows, it is possible to stick to a "pattern," yet retain an individual and interesting voice: it just takes some effort.
Evidence	In essays on literature, this usually consists of direct quotes from the primary source - often backed up with additional quotes or summaries from secondary sources.
Explanation	By answering the "why," "how," and "what" of your evidence, explanations prove your argument. As you draft and revise each paragraph, literally ask yourself the following questions each time you offer evidence "How does this prove the focus of this paragraph?" or "Why should the reader know this?" or "What does this prove?" Details, evidence, and sources are mute: you must give them a voice by telling the reader exactly how and why they prove your point. Remember, the reader is a duh-head: he or she cannot understand what you are saying - ya' gotta make clear. To be blunt, try adding at least two complete sentences of explanation. See #4 in body paragraphs.
Focus Words	For me, a word or phrase in the topic sentence of a body paragraph that gives the paragraph a direction. Ex. The townspeople's behavior before the lottery sets a tone of uneasiness tinged with violence. In this topic sentence, the focus is on the "tone of uneasiness tinged with violence." Thus, the examples and explanation will concentrate on proving this. A clear focus lends a direction and helps you shape your paragraph.
Format	The physical way your essay looks on the page. I use the MLA format, which is standard for courses in the Humanities. Luckily, this is a no-brainer. Just match the sample essay and you'll have know problems. Pay attention to spacing, placement of page number, and works cited page. There is a MLA template for Word in the computer lab in the Russell building - bring in a disk and check with the lab personnel. Note: those who use Word or Works do not follow the "Report" template: use your brain and follow the sample essay.
Fragment	A sentence that doesn't complete a thought - or more formally, lacks a subject and verb. See your grammar text for more information.
Independent Clause	A sentence, or part of a sentence, that can stand on its own. Ex. "The dog, which had sharp teeth, was bit by the postman." The independent clause is "The dog was bit by the postman."
Introduction	The first paragraph in an essay. Use this paragraph to get your reader interested, or "hooked," on your topic. Beware of the boring start. Usually, your thesis and division statement are in the introduction (generally the last sentence of introduction), but are not the introduction. One good technique is to discuss in general the topic of your essay. For example, in an essay about Sammy as a realistic hero, you can discuss American's typical ideas of heroes, and then contrast them with Sammy.
Introductory Phrase	Generally, any short dependent clause used at the beginning of a sentence, but in my class, a short phrase which sets up a direct quotation. You should provide a context for your quote by letting the reader know who wrote or said it. Ex. As the critic Robert Fitzgerald argues "O'Connor's work is always infused with a sense of God's grace" (23).
MLA Documentation	The method used in this class and other Humanities courses to document research. It consists of two parts: parenthetical citations and works cited entries.
Organization	The structure of your essay. This includes your thesis, division statement, and topic sentences. If they all connect, your essay is well organized; if the order of your divisions does not match the order of your paragraphs, or if the reader cannot follow the logic of your argument, then you need to work on revision.
Outline	A breakdown of the different parts of your essay. This doesn't have to be a formal, roman numeral job; it could be as simple as a list of phrases/ideas that only you understand. Interestingly, they can often be used after you've written your rough draft (I use both - and find that the ones I use after I've written a rough draft are the ones I usually stick with).
Paraphrase	Taking each word of your source, and finding a synonym for it. There can be no words from the original source in your paraphrase. NOTE: THIS MUST INCLUDE A CITATION.
Parenthetical or In-text Citation	In MLA documentation, this is how the reader knows you are using a source, or research. This consists of two parts: the author's last name and the page number where the information cited was taken from. If using a direct quote, the author's name must be included in an introductory phrase with only the page number in the parenthesis: Ex. As the critic Robert Fitzgerald argues "O'Connor's work is always infused with a sense of God's grace" (23). Note that there is no p. or page in the parenthesis, that the author's name isn't repeated in the parenthesis, and that the punctuation goes to the right of the parenthesis. If summarized or paraphrased, you could use an introductory phrase, or if not, the author's name in the parenthesis. In any event, the page number/s denoting the where the source is located source must be included in the parenthesis.
Plagiarism	Taking any words or ideas from another writer or person and either a) not putting the wording you copied from the source in quotation marks; and/or b) not using a citation to let the reader know who you received the wording or other information (summary, paraphrase, or idea/s) from. This will result in a failing grade. If you have a question about a source, bring it and your essay in so we can review it together. Be sure to check and follow the definitions Direct Quote, Paraphrase, and Summary. (See also "Using Sources" in "Online Packet")
Pre-writing	Instead of staring at a blank piece of paper waiting for that perfect first sentence to drop from the heavens to your head, jot down notes, brainstorm, make lists, or just write for 10 minutes without stopping to get started. This technique helps you get started - and comes in handy for revision as well.
Primary Source	The actual literary text you are writing about. In an essay on John Updike's "A&P," the primary source would be "A&P." In an essay on Hamlet, the primary source would be Hamlet. See also Secondary Source.
Proofreading	A different way of reading an essay. After you're finished revising your essay, go through the essay slowly, ideally with someone else reading along on another copy, and question EVERYTHING. Do I need that comma? Do I need to add a comma here? Did I introduce that source correctly? Couldn't I use a more specific word here? Get used to reading your work as a workbook exercise, not as something you've written - in other words, actively search for and make changes. Two hints: slowly read essay out loud, listening for confusing or tangled wording, and read essay from the last sentence to the first.
Reasons	These are the arguments used to prove the validity of your thesis. Try to develop as many different reasons as you can (ask yourself "why is my main focus valid?"), and then choose the ones which you feel will best prove your point. You should revise and refine these as you write your essay.
Research	Articles or other material on the particular story or author from literary journals, letters or journals which the author wrote, historical documents or other authoritative sources that are used to support your argument. Often you use expert opinion to show how your arguments are valid, or you may argue with someone's beliefs. The key in most essays is to avoid using long quotes or letting the research overwhelm your essay: remember, you, as the writer of the paper, need to determine what helps your overall argument, and what just sounds good. See source. (See also "Using Sources" in the online packet)
Revision	To look at your writing not as the person that wrote it, but as a reader who feels differently than you on any given topic. A good place to start revising is by deleting as much as you can. While this strikes terror in beginning writers' hearts ("It took me forever to come up with this in the first place!"), it is essential for good writing. Almost all drafts have paragraphs and sentences that aren't detailed or don't support the thesis. It's a very good sign if you cut out large sections of your prose: it shows that you now know what you want to say. In short, revision entails looking at the entire work and determining what helps and what doesn't - and being brutally honest about what doesn't. As a student once told me, "All I'm keeping is the name at the top of the page." After removing the "dead wood," you can work on communicating your thoughts more effectively. This often entails adding descriptions, facts, comparisons, or stories to make your point (evidence), and then explaining, in two or three different ways, exactly how these descriptions, facts, etc. prove that point. Remember, the evidence makes perfect sense to you - but not to the reader who looks at things differently than you do. In any case, make changes until you're sure the reader says "Oh, NOW I see what you mean." See Essay Directions and Sample Revision paragraphs in the Online Packet for more ideas.
Run-On	Two independent clauses in one sentence. These need to be separated with a period, semi-colon, comma and conjunction, or rewritten. See your grammar text for more information.
Secondary Source	In literature, this refers to letters, notes, or journals from the author, essays or books by critics, historical documents, etc., which are used when writing a research paper to support your ideas. The primary source would be the work (Hamlet, "My Last Duchess," "Everyday Use," etc.) itself.
Source	An individual piece of research used in your essay. This could be anything from an article by a literary scholar to an interview with an author.
Summary	Taking the general idea or statement from a source using only your own words. NOTE: THIS MUST BE CITED.
Thesis Statement	The controlling idea of an essay stated in one sentence, usually the last sentence in the introduction. See division statement for example. (See also "Thesis Statements")
Topic Sentence	The controlling idea of a paragraph. Usually phrased as a statement or claim that needs to be proved, it is related to and helps prove the thesis. Often uses a synonym of one of the divisions from the division statement to cue readers that a particular division is being discussed. See division statement for example. (See also "Thesis Statements")
Transitions	Words or phrases used within and between body paragraphs that show readers you are changing direction or topic. For paragraphs, a good technique is to mention the topic from the previous paragraph in the topic sentence of the new paragraph. Ex. topic sentence with transition: Not only do his character flaws contribute to Sammy's realism, but the lack of recognition he receives adds to it. In this example, the previous paragraph was about character flaws, and the new paragraph will be about his lack of recognition.
Working Bibliography	An ongoing list of possible sources gleaned from indexes and computer databases. Usually, out of four items, you'll find one good source.
Works Cited Entry	A notation, following MLA format, of a particular source. These are located on the works cited page. This is detail work: you must follow the guidelines exactly, paying particular attention to the placement and order of dates, commas and periods. Luckily, this is a one time deal: do it right and do it once.
Works Cited Page	An alphabetized arrangement (in MLA format) of all the sources actually used in a particular essay located on a separate page at the end of that essay. Follow sample essay and/or textbook for formatting instructions, and be sure to follow the MLA Works Cited entry format. (see "Using Sources" for many specific examples)