| Annotate
| To
mark up, comment on, or underline writing. This is your way of communicat=
ing
with a writer (even dead ones), and making sure you understand what is
written. It also helps to prepare you for in-class discussions. Do this w=
ith
a pen or pencil - hi-lighters prevent you from actually talking back to t=
he
text (ever try writing with one of those yellow markers?). Another hint, =
with
longer works, is to use an index card as a bookmark and note page numbers=
of
important quotes or descriptions. <=
/span> |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Argument |
A
particular point or belief you are trying to prove. This works on two lev=
els:
1) you have the argument for an entire essay (thesis): Sammy is a realist=
ic
hero; 2) you have an argument for an&nbs=
p;
individual paragraph (topic sentence): One aspect that makes him
realistic is his character flaws. <=
/span> |
|
| Audience |
Remember,
you're writing for somebody else - whoever is reading your work can't get
inside of your head or ask you "Uh, what do you mean right here?&quo=
t;
You have to make it clear to your reader, who is ignorant of what you're
trying to say, is always hungry for more detail, and who (in my case) has
high expectations. |
|
| Body Paragraphs |
The individual paragraphs t=
hat make
up the argument or provide the information contained in your essay. Each
paragraph is focused on a single idea (and usually a focus word/s to expl=
ain
what you will be saying about that idea), stated in a topic sentence. In
turn, each paragraph supports, explains, or proves your thesis. When type=
d, a
paragraph should roughly cover 1/3 to 1/2 of a page. Any more, and the re=
ader
probably needs a break; any less, and the reader isn't satisfied. This, of
course, overlooks the occasional one sentence zinger
paragraph.<p>Sample paragraph format: (see Body Paragraph Instructi=
ons
for a more detailed example of a paragraph set-up) <p>1) A main poi=
nt
stated in one sentence (make it an argument/statement - <i>Sammy is=
a
realistic hero because his character is flawed</i> - a claim that n=
eeds
to be backed up. I'll call this a topic sentence.<p> 2) An definition/explanation of =
any
general words in your main point.
In this case, what do you mean by a "realistic hero"? How is that different from a reg=
ular
hero? What do you mean by a "character . . . flaw"?<p> 3)
Examples or details that support your point (use descriptions of characte=
rs
or setting, quotes from the literary work, commentary by literary critics,
etc.). Ex. <i>Sammy refers to the customers in derogatory terms:
"witch" (1540), "sheep" (1542) and "scared pigs =
in a
chute" (1545).</i><p>&n=
bsp;
4) The reader cannot read your mind: after each quote, you have to
tell him or her exactly what you want it to prove/show. Ask the following
question in your head "how does this example prove my point?" a=
nd
"why is this quote important in this paragraph?" and then it an=
swer
in your essay. This is where you prove your argument. As a sentence start=
er,
try "This" or a restatement of your example (ex. <i>This
criticism points to Sammy's egocentrism, a common flaw with younger
adults.</i>) and then use an explanatory word (illustrates, shows,
demonstrates, proves, suggests, defines, supports, indicates, or reveals)=
in
a phrase to begin your commentary. Ex.&n=
bsp;
<i>His egocentrism makes him a more realistic character: far
from a sterling example of humanity, he shares the faults common in us
all.</i><p>5) A sentence to sum up.<p> Adapted from Rules of Thumb |
| Citation |
Used
to let reader know you have used an outside source. In this class, we'll =
be
using the MLA Citation method. |
|
| Commas |
Not
when you pause, and not when the sentence is going on too long. Actually,
there are four times when you need a comma: 1) with an introductory phras=
e;
2) with a list; 3) before a conjunction and between two independent claus=
es;
and 4) with a interruption or insertion (dependent clauses). See your gra=
mmar
text for more information. <=
/td>
| |
| Conclusion |
The
last paragraph of your essay. You can ask yourself the question "Wha=
t's
it all mean?" or bring up a point broached in your introduction, or =
. .
. . something else. |
|
| Context |
This serves two purposes: 1=
) it
sets up your point/argument by telling the reader why you're bringing up a
particular source or quote, and 2) it gives the reader information to help
identify the speaker or place the speaker or example in the given work.&l=
t;p>For
example, if using a quote from "A&P," you might say
<I>Sammy knew that he was not going to be like a typical hero and
"get the girl" at the end of the story. As he walks out into the
parking lot, he looks for "my girls," but notes that "they=
're
gone, of course" (17). The "of course," with its knowing a=
ir,
suggests that Sammy, even before he stepped outside, realized that his he=
roic
deed would go unnoticed by the girls.</I> <p>Context helps
readers by: 1) making the reader think "Oh yeah, now I remember that
part;" and 2) letting readers better understand (and thus agree with)
your argument by framing it in a manner so they can understand it. By setting up your example so cl=
early,
your argument flows logically from your example and explanation leaving t=
he
reader with a satisfied "Ahhh" as opposed to a befuddled
"huh?" |
|
| Cues |
No,
not sticks used in playing pool, but the way writers direct readers throu=
gh
their work. For instance, a thesis and division statement are cues writers
use to tell their readers "This is what my essay will be about."=
; A
topic sentence is a cue that tells readers "This is what this paragr=
aph
will be about," and a transition tells readers "Okay, I'm moving
from this topic to that topic." |
|
| Dependent
Clause |
A
phrase which cannot stand by itself. Ex. "The dog, which had sharp
teeth, was bit by the postman." The italicized phrase "which had
sharp teeth," needs to be set off from the independent clause with
commas. See #4 in Commas.
| |
| Detail |
It's
your job to supply specific quotes, descriptions of characters, or settin=
gs,
and other information from the work you are discussing to "show"
them what you are talking about. You must supply the reader with the evid=
ence
that shaped your understanding of the story so that he or she can say to
themselves "Yeah, I kinda' see that too" - as opposed
"Huh?" Remember, the reader is a hungry beast, and it is diffic=
ult
to satisfy his or her desire to know, so be specific. After supplying
details, remember to add explanations. |
|
| Direct Quote |
Using
the exact wording from your source: no words can be taken out (unless you=
use
ellipsis dots), and no words can be added (unless you put brackets [ ] ar=
ound
them). You denote where the quote begins and ends with quotation marks. N=
OTE:
YOU MUST CITE DIRECT QUOTES AND USE AN INTRODUCTORY PHRASE. |
|
| Division Statement |
A phrase, usually attached =
to the
thesis, but sometimes separate, which sets out the different
parts/arguments/reasons which prove the thesis of your essay. Think of it=
as
a road map to the reader so they can see what's coming. Each of your body
paragraphs needs to be accounted for in your division statement. (See also "Thesis
Statements" in "Online Packet").<br><br>In the
sample thesis statement below, the division statement is in italicized. In
"The Lottery," Jackson uses the behavior of <i>the
townspeople, the names of the characters, and the dark symbolism of the b=
lack
box</i> to foreshadow the grisly results of the lottery.<p> Be=
low
are topic sentences based on the division statement above. Note how they
follow the order established in the division statement:<br>1. The
townspeople's behavior before the lottery sets a tone of uneasiness tinged
with violence. <br>2. In addition to the townspeople's behavior,
Jackson uses the names of the characters to cast a shadow of uncertainty =
and
even death over the proceedings. <br>3. While the character's actio=
ns
and names hint at the violent end of the story, the most potent foreshado=
wing
lies in the dark symbolism of the lottery box itself. |
| Essay |
An essay is a focused and o=
rganized
presentation of your thinking on a particular topic - with an emphasis on=
the
word focus. It is not everything you know or feel about a topic dumped in=
to a
collection of paragraphs, but a body of writing with a clear direction, a
direction readily apparent to the reader and which logically proceeds from
one part to the next.<p> It usually consists of an introduction,
thesis/division statement, body paragraphs, and a conclusion.<p>The
main difference between academic essays and essays for general readership
(such as articles in magazines) is audience. In academic writing, you
communicate your thinking by following some basic conventions (introducti=
on,
thesis statement, etc.) so that your primary reader, usually a tired,
overworked professor, can quickly grasp your understanding of, or position
on, a specific topic. When writing for general readers, more emphasis is
placed on style; unlike the professor, these readers don't have to read t=
he
essay: the writer has to make them want to read it - and it has to be good
enough to persuade readers to shell out the bucks to do so.<p> The
challenge in writing for college lies in combining the two: to follow the
conventions without sounding, well, academic. As the sample essay include=
d in
the Online Packet shows, it is possible to stick to a "pattern,"
yet retain an individual and interesting voice: it just takes some
effort. |
|
| Evidence |
In
essays on literature, this usually consists of direct quotes from the pri=
mary
source - often backed up with additional quotes or summaries from seconda=
ry
sources. |
|
| Explanation |
By
answering the "why," "how," and "what" of y=
our
evidence, explanations prove your argument. As you draft and revise each
paragraph, literally ask yourself the following questions each time you o=
ffer
evidence "How does this prove the focus of this paragraph?" or
"Why should the reader know this?" or "What does this
prove?" Details, evide=
nce,
and sources are mute: you must give them a voice by telling the reader
exactly how and why they prove your point. Remember, the reader is a
duh-head: he or she cannot understand what you are saying - ya' gotta make
clear. To be blunt, try add=
ing at
least two complete sentences of
explanation. See #4 in body
paragraphs. |
|
| Focus Word/s |
For
me, a word or phrase in the topic sentence of a body paragraph that gives=
the
paragraph a direction. Ex. The townspeople's behavior before the lottery =
sets
a tone of uneasiness tinged with violence. In this topic sentence, the fo=
cus
is on the "tone of uneasiness tinged with violence." Thus, the
examples and explanation will concentrate on proving this. A clear focus lends a direction =
and
helps you shape your paragraph. |
|
| Format |
The
physical way your essay looks on the page. I use the MLA format, which is
standard for courses in the Humanities. Luckily, this is a no-brainer. Ju=
st
match the sample essay and you'll have know problems. Pay attention to
spacing, placement of page number, and works cited page. There is a MLA
template for Word in the computer lab in the Russell building - bring in a
disk and check with the lab personnel.&n=
bsp;
Note: those who use Word or Works do not follow the "Report&q=
uot;
template: use your brain and follow the sample essay. |
|
| Fragment |
A
sentence that doesn't complete a thought - or more formally, lacks a subj=
ect
and verb. See your grammar text for more information. |
|
| Independent
Clause |
A
sentence, or part of a sentence, that can stand on its own. Ex. "The
dog, which had sharp teeth, was bit by the postman." The independent
clause is "The dog was bit by the postman." |
|
| Introduction |
<=
span
style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> The first paragraph in an essay. =
Use
this paragraph to get your reader interested, or "hooked," on y=
our
topic. Beware of the boring start. Usually, your thesis and division
statement are in the introduction (generally the last sentence of
introduction), but are not the introduction. One good technique is to discuss=
in
general the topic of your essay.
For example, in an essay about Sammy as a realistic hero, you can
discuss American's typical ideas of heroes, and then contrast them with
Sammy. |
|
| Introductory
Phrase |
Gener=
ally,
any short dependent clause used at the beginning of a sentence, but in my
class, a short phrase which sets up a direct quotation. You should provid=
e a
context for your quote by letting the reader know who wrote or said it. E=
x.
As the critic Robert Fitzgerald argues "O'Connor's work is always
infused with a sense of God's grace" (23). |
|
| MLA documentation |
The
method used in this class and other Humanities courses to document resear=
ch.
It consists of two parts: parenthetical citations and works cited
entries. |
|
| Organization |
The
structure of your essay. This includes your thesis, division statement, a=
nd
topic sentences. If they all connect, your essay is well organized; if the
order of your divisions does not match the order of your paragraphs, or if
the reader cannot follow the logic of your argument, then you need to wor=
k on
revision. |
|
| Outline |
A
breakdown of the different parts of your essay. This doesn't have to be a
formal, roman numeral job; it could be as simple as a list of phrases/ide=
as
that only you understand. Interestingly, they can often be used after you=
've
written your rough draft (I use both - and find that the ones I use after
I've written a rough draft are the ones I usually stick with). |
|
| Paraphrase |
Taking
each word of your source, and finding a synonym for it. There can be no w=
ords
from the original source in your paraphrase. NOTE: THIS MUST INCLUDE A
CITATION. |
|
| Parenthetical
Documentation/Citation (Or In-text Citation) |
In
MLA documentation, this is how the reader knows you are using a source, or
research. This consists of two parts: the author's last name and the page
number where the information cited was taken from. If using a direct quote, the aut=
hor's
name must be included in an introductory phrase with only the page number=
in
the parenthesis: Ex. As the critic Robert Fitzgerald argues "O'Conno=
r's
work is always infused with a sense of God's grace" (23). Note that
there is no p. or page in the parenthesis, that the author's name isn't
repeated in the parenthesis, and that the punctuation goes to the right of
the parenthesis. If summarized or
paraphrased, you could use an introductory phrase, or if not, the
author's name in the parenthesis.
In any event, the page number/s denoting the where the source is
located source must be included in the parenthesis. |
|
| Parenthetical
Documentation Citation Or In text Citation |
In MLA documentation, this =
is how
the reader knows you are using a source, or research. This consists of two
parts: the author's last name and the page number where the information c=
ited
was taken from. If using a =
direct
quote, the author's name must be included in an introductory phrase with =
only
the page number in the parenthesis: Ex. <i>As the critic Robert
Fitzgerald argues "O'Connor's work is always infused with a sense of
God's grace" (23).</i> Note that there is no p. or page in the
parenthesis, that the author's name isn't repeated in the parenthesis, and
that the punctuation goes to the right of the parenthesis.<p>If
summarized or paraphrased, =
you
could use an introductory phrase, or if not, the author's name in the
parenthesis. In any event, =
the
page number/s denoting the where the source is located source must be
included in the parenthesis. |
|
| Plagiarism |
Taking
any words or ideas from another writer or person and either a) not putting
the wording you copied from the source in quotation marks; and/or b) not
using a citation to let the reader know who you received the wording or o=
ther
information (summary, paraphrase, or idea/s) from. This will result in a failing
grade. If you have a questi=
on
about a source, bring it and your essay in so we can review it together. =
Be sure
to check and follow the definitions Direct Quote, Paraphrase, and Summary.
(See also "Using Sources" in "Online Packet") |
|
| Pre-writing |
Instead
of staring at a blank piece of paper waiting for that perfect first sente=
nce
to drop from the heavens to your head, jot down notes, brainstorm, make
lists, or just write for 10 minutes without stopping to get started. This
technique helps you get started - and comes in handy for revision as
well. |
|
| Primary Source |
The
actual literary text you are writing about. In an essay on John Updike's
"A&P," the primary source would be "A&P." In an essay on Hamlet, the prima=
ry
source would be Hamlet. See=
also
Secondary Source. |
|
| Proofreading |
A different way of reading =
an
essay. After you're finished revising your essay, go through the essay
slowly, ideally with someone else reading along on another copy, and
question EVERYTHING. Do I n=
eed
that comma? Do I need to add a comma here? Did I introduce that source
correctly? Couldn't I use a more specific word here? Get used to reading =
your
work as a workbook exercise, not as something you've written - in other
words, actively search for and make changes. Two hints: slowly read essay=
out
loud, listening for confusing or tangled wording, and read essay from the
last sentence to the first. Also, try the MLA Editor software program in =
the
writing lab. ("Doesn't the last hint make three hints?" "Y=
eah,
but I'm an English Professor, not a math whiz."). |
|
| Reasons |
These
are the arguments used to prove the validity of your thesis. Try to devel=
op
as many different reasons as you can (ask yourself "why is my main f=
ocus
valid?"), and then choose the ones which you feel will best prove yo=
ur
point. You should revise and refine these as you write your essay. |
|
| Research |
Articles
or other material on the particular story or author from literary journal=
s,
letters or journals which the author wrote, historical documents or other
authoritative sources that are used to support your argument. Often you u=
se
expert opinion to show how your arguments are valid, or you may argue with
someone's beliefs. The key in most essays is to avoid using long quotes or
letting the research overwhelm your essay: remember, you, as the writer of
the paper, need to determine what helps your overall argument, and what j=
ust
sounds good. See source. (See also "Using Sources" in the online
packet) |
|
| Revision |
To look at your writing not=
as the
person that wrote it, but as a reader who feels differently than you on a=
ny
given topic. A good place to start revising is by deleting as much as you
can. While this strikes ter=
ror in
beginning writers' hearts ("It took me forever to come up with this =
in
the first place!"), it is essential for good writing. Almost all dra=
fts
have paragraphs and sentences that aren't detailed or don't support the
thesis. It's a very good sign if you cut out large sections of your prose=
: it
shows that you now know what you want to say. In short, revision entails looki=
ng at
the entire work and determining what helps and what doesn't - and being
brutally honest about what doesn't.
As a student once told me, "All I'm keeping is the name at the
top of the page."<p>After removing the "dead wood," =
you
can work on communicating your thoughts more effectively. This often enta=
ils
adding descriptions, facts, comparisons, or stories to make your point
(evidence), and then explaining, in two or three different ways, exactly =
how
these descriptions, facts, etc. prove that point. Remember, the evidence makes per=
fect
sense to you - but not to the reader who looks at things differently than=
you
do. In any case, make changes until you're sure the reader says "Oh,=
NOW
I see what you mean."<p>See Essay Directions and Sample Revisi=
on
paragraphs in the Online Packet for more ideas. |
|
| Run-on |
Two
independent clauses in one sentence. These need to be separated with a
period, semi-colon, comma and conjunction, or rewritten. See your grammar
text for more information. <=
/td>
| |
| Secondary
Source |
In
literature, this refers to letters, notes, or journals from the author,
essays or books by critics, historical documents, etc., which are used wh=
en
writing a research paper to support your ideas. The primary source would =
be
the work (Hamlet, "My Last Duchess," "Everyday Use,"
etc.) itself. |
|
| Source |
An
individual piece of research used in your essay. This could be anything f=
rom
an article by a literary scholar to an interview with an author. |
|
| Summary |
Taking
the general idea or statement from a source using only your own words. NO=
TE:
THIS MUST BE CITED. |
|
| Thesis Statement |
The
controlling idea of an essay stated in one sentence, usually the last
sentence in the introduction. See division statement for example. (See al=
so
"Thesis Statements") |
|
| Topic Sentence |
The
controlling idea of a paragraph. Usually phrased as a statement or claim =
that
needs to be proved, it is related to and helps prove the thesis. Often us=
es a
synonym of one of the divisions from the division statement to cue readers
that a particular division is being discussed. See division statement for
example. (See also "Thesis Statements") |
|
| Transitions |
Words
or phrases used within and between body paragraphs that show readers you =
are
changing direction or topic. For paragraphs, a good technique is to menti=
on
the topic from the previous paragraph in the topic sentence of the new
paragraph. Ex. topic sente=
nce
with transition: Not only =
do his
character flaws contribute to Sammy's realism, but the lack of recognitio=
n he
receives adds to it. In this
example, the previous paragraph was about character flaws, and the new
paragraph will be about his lack of recognition. |
|
| Working Bibliography |
An
ongoing list of possible sources gleaned from indexes and computer databa=
ses.
Usually, out of four items, you'll find one good source. |
|
| Works Cited
Entry |
A
notation, following MLA format, of a particular source. These are located=
on
the works cited page. This is detail work: you must follow the guidelines
exactly, paying particular attention to the placement and order of dates,
commas and periods. Luckily, this is a one time deal: do it right and do =
it
once. I have several examples of commonly used sources in "Read"=
;: I
expect you to follow them (see "Using Sources" for many specific
examples). |
|
| Works Cited
Page |
An
alphabetized arrangement (in MLA format) of all the sources actually used=
in
a particular essay located on a separate page at the end of that essay.
Follow sample essay and/or textbook for formatting instructions, and be s=
ure
to follow the MLA Works Cited entry format. (see "Using Sources"
for many specific examples) =
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|