|
Bold words in definitions means a
cross-reference (check in glossary for the definition of that word).
Annotate: To mark up,
comment on, or underline writing. In the margins of your book
you need to ask questions of the writer, summarize a paragraph with a
key word, note similarities in word choice, and in general, take notes.
This is your way of communicating with a writer (even dead ones), and
making sure you understand what is written. It also helps to prepare
you for in-class discussions. Do this with a pen or pencil –
hi-lighters prevent you from actually talking back to the text (ever
try writing with one of those yellow markers?). Another hint, with
longer works, is to use an index card as a bookmark and note page
numbers of important quotes or descriptions.
Audience: Remember, you’re writing
for somebody else – whoever is reading your work can't get inside of
your head or ask you "Uh, what do you mean right here?" You have to
make your thinking clear to your reader, who is ignorant of what you're
trying to say, is always hungry for more detail, and who (in my case)
has high expectations.
Argument: A particular point or
belief you are trying to prove. This works on two levels: 1) you have
the argument for an entire essay (thesis and divisions):
Voltaire shows that Candide is not a static character through his
renunciation of Pangloss’s ideas, the lessons that he learns, and his
ability to take action; 2) you have an argument for an
individual paragraph (topic sentence):
Candide’s growth is illustrated by his rejection of Pangloss’s
philosophies.
Body Paragraphs: The individual
paragraphs that make up the argument or provide the information
contained in your essay. Each paragraph
is focused on a single idea (and usually a focus word/s to explain what
you will be saying about that idea), stated in a topic
sentence. In turn, each paragraph supports, explains, or
proves your thesis. When typed, a
paragraph should roughly cover 1/3 to 1/2 of a page. Any more, and the
reader probably needs a break; any less, and the reader isn't
satisfied. This, of course, overlooks the occasional one sentence
zinger paragraph.
Sample paragraph format:
- A main point stated in one sentence (make it an
argument/statement – Candide is not a static character because he acts
on his own. – a claim that needs to be backed up.
I'll call this a topic sentence.
- An definition/explanation
of any general words in your main point. In this case, what
do you mean by a "static character"? How is that different
from a regular character?
- Examples or details that
support your point (use descriptions of characters or setting, quotes
from the literary work, commentary by literary critics, etc.). Ex.
Although while in Westphalia, Candide seems passive, when confronted
with Cunegonde’s lovers, he kills each in short order. As the
narrator notes, “It was a quick, clear chain of reasoning” (331).
- The reader cannot read your mind: after each quote,
you have to tell him or her exactly what you want it to prove/show. Ask
the following question in your head "how does this example prove my
point?" and "why is this quote important in this paragraph?" and then
it answer in your essay. This is where you prove your argument. As a
sentence starter, try "This" or a restatement of your example and then
use an explanatory word (illustrates, shows, demonstrates, proves,
suggests, defines, supports, indicates, or reveals) in a phrase to
begin your commentary.: This action suggests a growth on Candide’s
part. Instead of blindly following the advice of Pangloss or aimlessly
wandering off the battlefield, as he did earlier, he demonstrates an
ability to think for himself. Later, Candide . . . .
- A sentence to sum up: Ex. Since a character who
thinks is capable of growth, Voltaire foreshadows, early in the story,
the growth that Candide eventually attains.
Adapted from Rules of Thumb
Citation: Used to let reader know
you have used an outside source. In this class, we’ll be using the MLA
Citation method.
Commas: Not when you pause, and not
when the sentence is going on too long. Actually, there are four times
when you need a comma: 1) with an introductory phrase; 2) with a list;
3) before a conjunction and between two independent
clauses; and 4) with a interruption or insertion
(dependent clauses). See your grammar text for more information.
Conclusion: The last paragraph of
your essay. You can ask yourself the question "What's it all mean?" or
bring up a point broached in your introduction,
or . . . . something else.
Context: This serves two purposes:
1) it sets up your point/argument by telling the reader why you’re
bringing up a particular source or quote, and 2) it gives the reader
information to help identify the speaker or place the speaker or
example in the given work. For example, if using a quote from
An Essay on Man you might say
One of the main targets of Candide’s satire is the period’s willful
rejection of rationality. This 18th century belief that, as Pangloss
continually repeats “everything is for the best” (319) found it’s
ultimate voice in Alexander Pope’s An Essay On Man,
which baldly states: “One truth is clear, WHATEVER IS, IS RIGHT”
(315). Voltaire takes such blanket assertions and skewers
them on the sword of irony.
Context helps readers by making the reader think "Oh yeah, now I
remember that part" and by letting readers better understand (and thus
agree with) your argument by framing it in a manner so they can
understand it. By setting up your example so clearly, your
argument flows logically from your example and explanation leaving the
reader with a satisfied "Ahhh" as opposed to a befuddled "huh?"
Cues: No, not sticks used in playing
pool, but the way writers direct readers through their work. For
instance, a thesis and division
statement are cues writers use to tell their readers
"This is what my essay will be about." A topic sentence
is a cue that tells readers "This is what this paragraph will be
about," and a transition tells readers "Okay, I’m moving from this
topic to that topic."
Dependent Clause: A phrase which
cannot stand by itself. Ex. The dog, which had sharp teeth,
was bit by the postman. The italicized phrase "which had sharp teeth,"
needs to be set off from the independent clause with commas.
See #4 in Commas.
Detail: It’s your job to supply
specific quotes, descriptions of characters, or settings, and other
information from the work you are discussing to "show" them what you
are talking about. You must supply the reader with the evidence
that shaped your understanding of the story so that he or she can say
to themselves "Yeah, I kinda' see that too" – as opposed to "Huh?"
Remember, the reader is a hungry beast, and it is difficult to satisfy
his or her desire to know, so be specific. After supplying details,
remember to add explanations.
Direct Quote: Using the exact
wording from your source: no words can be taken out (unless you use
ellipsis dots), and no words can be added (unless you put brackets [ ]
around them). You denote where the quote begins and ends with quotation
marks. NOTE: YOU MUST CITE DIRECT QUOTES AND USE AN
INTRODUCTORY PHRASE.
Division Statement: A phrase which
sets out the different parts/arguments/reasons
which prove the thesis of your essay
(often part of your thesis). Think of it
as a road map to the reader so they can see what’s coming. Each of your
body paragraphs needs to be
accounted for in your division statement. (See also “Thesis
Statements” below).
In the sample thesis statement below, the
division statement is in italicized.
Voltaire shows that Candide is not a static character
through his renunciation of Pangloss’s ideas, the
lessons that he learns, and his ability to take action.
Below are topic sentences based on the division
statement above. Note how they follow the order
established in the division statement:
- Candide’s growth is illustrated by his rejection of
Pangloss’s philosophies.
- In addition to rejecting Pangloss’s ideas, the
lessons about mankind drummed into him by his adventures show a
character capable of change.
- While these lessons are a necessary part of his
change, his conversion of this knowledge to action best shows his
growth.
Essay: An essay is a
focused and organized presentation of your thinking on a particular
topic – with an emphasis on the word focus. It is not everything you
know or feel about a topic dumped into a collection of paragraphs, but
a body of writing with a clear direction, a direction readily apparent
to the reader and which logically proceeds from one part to the next.
It usually consists of an introduction, thesis/division
statement, body paragraphs,
and a conclusion.
The main difference between academic essays and essays for general
readership (such as articles in magazines) is audience. In academic
writing, you communicate your thinking by following some basic
conventions (introduction, thesis statement,
etc.) so that your primary reader, usually a tired,
overworked professor, can quickly grasp your understanding of, or
position on, a specific topic. When writing for general readers, more
emphasis is placed on style; unlike the professor, these readers don’t
have to read the essay: the writer has to make them want to read it –
and it has to be good enough to persuade readers to shell out the bucks
to do so. The challenge in writing for college lies in combining the
two: to follow the conventions without sounding, well, academic. As the
sample essays included in this packet show, it is possible to stick to
a "pattern," yet retain an individual and interesting voice: it just
takes some effort.
Evidence: In essays on literature,
this usually consists of direct quotes from
the primary source which prove/illustrate
the argument you are making. Evidence
could also be quotes or summaries from secondary sources.
These are all used to show the reader how you reached your opinion (but
see explanation below for the second half
of this dynamic duo).
Explanation: By answering the "why,"
"how," and "what" of your evidence, explanations
prove your argument.
As you draft and revise each paragraph, literally ask yourself the
following questions each time you offer evidence:
"How does this prove the focus of this
paragraph?" or "Why should the reader know this?" or "What does this
prove?" Details, evidence,
and sources are mute: you must give them a voice by telling the reader
exactly how and why they prove your point.
Remember, the reader is a duh-head: he or she cannot understand what
you are saying – ya’ gotta make clear. To be blunt, try
adding at least two complete sentences of
explanation. See #4 in body paragraphs.
Focus Word/s: For me, a word or
phrase in the topic sentence of a body
paragraph that gives the paragraph a direction. Ex.
Candide’s growth is illustrated by his rejection of Pangloss’s
philosophies. In this topic sentence, the focus is on the war in
literature of love. Thus, the examples
and explanation will concentrate on
proving this. A clear focus lends a direction and helps you
shape your paragraph.
Format: The physical way your essay
looks on the page. I use the MLA format, which is standard for courses
in the Humanities. Luckily, this is a no-brainer. Just match the sample
essay and you’ll have know problems. Pay attention to spacing,
placement of page number, and works cited page. Note: those who use
Word or Works do not follow the "Report" template: use your brain and
follow the sample essay.
Fragment: A sentence that doesn’t
complete a thought – or more formally, lacks a subject and verb. See
your grammar text for more information.
Independent Clause: A sentence, or
part of a sentence, that can stand on its own. Ex. The dog, which had
sharp teeth, was bit by the postman. The independent clause
is The dog was bit by the postman.
Introduction: Use this paragraph to
get your reader interested, or "hooked," on your topic – and thus the
first paragraph in an essay. Beware of
the boring start. Usually, your thesis and division statement are in
the introduction (generally the last sentence of introduction), but are
not the introduction. One good
technique is to discuss in general the topic of your essay.
For example, in an essay about Sammy as a realistic hero, you can
discuss American's typical ideas of heroes, and then contrast them with
Sammy.
Introductory Phrase: In my class, a
short phrase which sets up a direct quotation
(more generally, any short dependent clause
used at the beginning of a sentence). You should provide a context
for your quote by letting the reader know who wrote or said it. Ex.
Patrick Henry argues that Candide and Modern
works such as Six Characters in Search of an Author
are connected by their recognition that the world is not rational: “the
vision of Candide is particularly modern [. . .
it] it depicts the state of modern, secular humanity in ways clearly
analogous to those of contemporary absurdist philosophies” (33).
MLA documentation: The method used
in this class and other Humanities courses to document research.
It consists of two parts: parenthetical citations
and works cited entries.
Organization: The structure of your essay.
Your organization includes your thesis, division
statement, and topic sentences. If they all connect,
your essay is well organized; if the order of your divisions does not
match the order of your paragraphs, or if the reader cannot follow the
logic of your argument, then you need to work on revision.
Outline: A breakdown of the
different parts of your essay. This
doesn’t have to be a formal, roman numeral job; it could be as simple
as a list of phrases/ideas that set up your ideas/divisions for each
paragraph. Interestingly, they can often be used after you’ve
written your rough draft (I use both – and find that the ones I use
after I’ve written a rough draft are the ones I usually stick with).
Paraphrase: Taking each word of your
source, and finding a synonym for it. There can be no words from the
original source in your paraphrase. NOTE: THIS MUST
INCLUDE A CITATION.
Parenthetical Documentation/Citation (Or In-text
Citation): In MLA documentation,
this consists of two parts: the author's last name and the page number
where the information cited was taken from: it is how the reader knows
you are using a source, or research. If using a direct quote, the
author's name must be included in an introductory phrase
with only the page number in the parenthesis: Ex. Suzanne Pucci warns
against viewing the characters in Candide as
“puppetlike characters” who only act as “signifiers of a particular
eighteenth century philosophical” system (59). Note that there is no p.
or page in the parenthesis, that the author's name isn't repeated in
the parenthesis, and that the punctuation goes to the right of the
parenthesis.
If summarized or paraphrased, you could use an introductory
phrase, or if not, the author's name in the
parenthesis. In any event, the page number/s denoting where
the source is located source must be
included in the parenthesis.
Plagiarism: Taking any words or
ideas from another writer or person and either a) not putting the
wording you copied from the source in
quotation marks; and/or b) not using a citation
to let the reader know who you received the wording or other
information (summary, paraphrase, or idea/s) from. This will
result in a failing grade. If you have a question about a source,
bring it and your essay in so we can review it together. Be sure to
check and follow the definitions Direct Quote,
Paraphrase, and Summary.
Pre-writing: Instead of staring at a
blank piece of paper waiting for that perfect first sentence to drop
from the heavens to your head, jot down notes, brainstorm, make lists,
or just write for 10 minutes without stopping to get started. This
technique helps you get started – and comes in handy for revision as
well.
Primary Source: The actual literary
text you are writing about. In an essay on Kafka’s The
Metamorphosis, the primary source would be The Metamorphosis.
In an essay on Hamlet, the primary source would be Hamlet.
See also Secondary Source.
Proofreading: A different way of
reading an essay where you concentrate on clarifying wording and
punctuation. After you’re finished revising
your essay, you go through the essay slowly, ideally, with someone else
reading along on another copy, and question EVERYTHING.
Do I need that comma? Do I need to add a comma
here? Did I introduce that source correctly?
Couldn’t I use a more specific word here. Get used to reading
your work as a workbook exercise, not as something you’ve written -- in
other words, actively look for and make changes.
Two hints: slowly read essay out loud, listening for confusing or
tangled wording, and read essay from the last sentence to the
first. Also, try the MLA editor software program in the
writing lab. (“Uh . . . isn’t that three hints” “Yes, I’m glad you can
count”)
Reasons: These are the arguments
used to prove the validity of your thesis.
Try to develop as many different reasons as you can (ask yourself "why
is my main focus valid?"), and then choose the ones which you feel will
best prove your point. You should revise
and refine these as you write your essay.
Research: Articles or other material
on the particular story or author from literary journals, letters or
journals which the author wrote, historical documents or other
authoritative sources that are used to
support your argument. Often you use
expert opinion to show how your arguments
are valid, or you may argue with someone’s beliefs. The key in most
essays is to avoid using long quotes or letting the research overwhelm
your essay: remember, you, as the writer of the paper, need to
determine what helps your overall argument, and what just sounds good.
See source.
Revision: To look at your writing
not as the person that wrote it, but as a reader who feels differently
than you on any given topic. A good place to start revising is by
deleting as much as you can. While this strikes terror in
beginning writers' hearts ("It took me forever to come up with this in
the first place!"), it is essential for good writing. Almost all drafts
have paragraphs and sentences that aren't detailed or don't support the
thesis. It's a very good sign if you cut out
large sections of your prose: it shows that you now know what you want
to say. In short, revision entails looking at the entire work
and determining what helps and what doesn't – and being brutally honest
about what doesn't. As a student once told me, "All I'm
keeping is the name at the top of the page.”
After removing the "dead
wood," you can work on communicating your thoughts more effectively.
This often entails adding descriptions, facts, comparisons, or stories
to make your point (evidence), and then explaining,
in two or three different ways, exactly how these descriptions, facts,
etc. prove that point. Remember, the evidence
makes perfect sense to you – but not to the reader who looks at things
differently than you do. In any case, make changes until you're sure
the reader says "Oh, NOW I see what you mean."
See “So, You Wanna” (31) for
more ideas.
Run-on: Two independent
clauses in one sentence. These need to be separated with
a period, semi-colon, comma and conjunction, or rewritten. See your
grammar text for more information.
Source: An individual piece of research
used in your essay. This could be anything from an article by a
literary scholar to an interview with an author.
Secondary Source: In literature,
this refers to letters, notes, or journals from the author, essays or
books by critics, historical documents, etc., which are used when
writing a research paper to support your ideas. The primary
source would be the work (Hamlet, "My
Last Duchess," "Everyday Use," etc.) itself.
Summary: Taking the general idea or
statement from a source using only your own words. NOTE:
THIS MUST BE CITED.
Thesis Statement: The controlling
idea of an essay stated in one sentence,
usually the last sentence in the introduction.
See division statement for example.
Topic Sentence: The controlling idea
of a paragraph. Usually phrased as a statement or claim that needs to
be proved, it is related to and helps prove the thesis. Often uses a
synonym of one of the divisions from the division
statement to cue readers
that a particular division is being discussed. See division
statement for example.
Transitions: Words or phrases used
within and between body paragraphs that
show readers you are changing direction or topic. For paragraphs, a
good technique is to mention the topic from the previous paragraph in
the topic sentence of the new paragraph.
Ex. topic sentence with transition:
While the happiness Candide finds in the edenic
paradise in Paraguay is fleeting, the happiness in the final garden in
Constantinople will endure.
In this example, the previous paragraph was about
character flaws, and the new paragraph will be about his lack of
recognition.
Working Bibliography: An ongoing
list of possible sources gleaned from
indexes and computer databases. Usually, out of four items, you’ll find
one good source.
Works Cited Entry: A notation,
following MLA format, of a particular source.
These are located on the works cited page.
This is detail work: you must follow the guidelines exactly, paying
particular attention to the placement and order of dates, commas and
periods. Luckily, this is a one time deal: do it right and do it once.
I have several examples of commonly used sources in Read:
I expect you to follow them.
Works Cited Page: An alphabetized
arrangement (in MLA format) of all the sources
actually used in a particular essay located on a separate page at the
end of that essay. Follow sample essay and/or textbook for formatting
instructions, and be sure to follow the MLA Works Cited entry format.
© 2010 David Bordelon
|